The Material Foundations of Freedom

The mainstream view of freedom in modern western society can be roughly divided into two traditions: negative freedom and positive freedom.[1] Although there are conspicuous differences between them, neither of them is possible to realize without the basic economic foundation of survival and development.[2] Productivity was one of the critical factors that catalyzed the formation of what is so called modern freedom. Without such productivity, freedom will only exist as a utopian vision. Freedom never come without a cost, it requires a prerequisite of material basis and sufficient time.

Before the Industrial Revolution, the primary economic structure was based on a subsistence economy.[3] Most people constrained by the basic survival necessities were forced to make a living through physical labour. Only the privileged few, including those who defined the concept of freedom such as John Locke, possessed the ability to savor freedom.[4] Freedom, then was a luxurious surplus rather than rights.

Among the factors of improving productivity, the Industrial Revolution played a vital role. As historian Robert Allen stated in The British Industrial Revolution in Global Perspective, “the Industrial Revolution was the prerequisite for ordinary people to attain freedom.” James Watt, as the inventor of the separate condenser, significantly enhanced its efficiency and practicality, thereby accelerating the process of industrialization. Rosen explains that his invention patented in 1769 made energy output more stable and controllable for utilization.[5] The increase in productivity led to greater material wealth and time excess, laying the foundation for freedom. Since freedom, in my definition, is a social surplus built upon material abundance, it fundamentally depends on the level of productive forces. Thus by promoting productivity, Watt also contributed to the enlargement of human freedom.

So far, this essay has demonstrated and the fundamental role of productivity which freedom relies on, as well as the crucial function of James Watt’s steam engine. To be more specific, he alleviated workers from survival burden, broke geographic limitations, provided opportunity for individuals to seek for education and leisure, and fostered

Negative freedom was acquired by workers who were once constrained by backbreaking manual labour and geographical limitations. Watt’s invention redefined the relationship between the human body and labour, marking a turning point in the expansion of physical freedom during the Industrial Revolution. Once limited by physical strength, as evidenced by the labour-intensive nature of pre-industrial economies, human freedom expanded as physical strength was no longer directly correlated with labour output. In particular, Cuenca Esteban suggested that the share of cotton textiles in industrial value added was 8.6% in 1770 and rose dramatically to 25.6 per cent by 1801,[6] highlighting the rapid expansion of mechanized textile production. In the pre-industrial era, farmers and artisans often worked beyond 12 hours a day just to make a living[7] ---- leaving little room for personal growth or leisure. After Watt’s steam engine drove the factory system, despite poor working conditions in the early industrial period, rising productivity eventually led to the adoption of shorter working hours.

Moreover, steam locomotion revolutionized movement across space. With advances in transportation technology, the efficiency of human mobility and material circulation has greatly improved, significantly reducing the traditional constraints of geographical distance and time. For example, in the past, it might have taken up to several days to transport goods from London to France, whereas today, thanks to air transport and modern shipping systems, this process has been shortened to about 2 hours.[8] This rapid and convenient transportation network not only enhances the freedom of movement for individuals and goods, but also facilitates increased interaction and communication across different social classes. The accelerated flow of people and resources has promoted deeper economic and cultural integration among countries, laying a solid foundation for the ongoing development of globalization. While globalization has contributed to greater freedom by facilitating the movement of goods, ideas, people, and information across borders, fostering economic opportunities, cultural exchange, and access to knowledge.

Workers have also attained positive freedom as they gained their individual agency. Watt’s steam-powered industrial system laid the foundations for new forms of collective freedom, empowering workers to organize, demand rights, and reshape their societal positions. Between 1780 and 1830, the number of workers in British cotton mills grew from fewer than 10,000 to over 300,000, forming one of the earliest and most recognizable Proletarian classes in history.[9] As workers were brought together, they developed shared experiences. This social proximity fostered communication and the formation of class identity, which in turn catalyzed demands not only for better wages and working conditions but also for broader political rights and civil liberties. The very process of aggregation thus became a mechanism of empowerment, transforming economic demands into political action and contributing to the expansion of individual and collective freedom. Factories such as those operated by Boulton & Watt introduced standardized shift work, aligning labor with the continuous rhythm of steam-powered machines. This marked a fundamental departure from pre-industrial work patterns and laid the groundwork for a disciplined, factory-based labor force. This transformation is reflected in legislative developments such as the Factory Act of 1833, which explicitly stated that "No child under the age of nine shall be employed in any factory, and the working hours of children aged 9-13 shall not exceed 48 hours per week." Furthermore, after the repeal of the Combination Acts in 1824, skilled workers formed some of the earliest trade unions.[10] Groups like the London Mechanics’ Society actively campaigned for better working conditions, signaling the emergence of organized labor as a political force.

Due to advancements in productivity and legal protections, workers have experienced a substantial increase in their free time for education, leisure, social activities and so on. The decrease in working hours increased their individual agency and awareness of freedom. Consciousness of freedom enabled reforms in education and access to leisure that redefined what it meant to live freely. Freed from survival labor, people began to gain time for self-development, a shift that marked a new dimension in the meaning of freedom. The reduction in working hours also gave workers more time to think, learn, and organize for better rights and conditions. For example, in 19th-century Britain, the Workers’ Educational Association emerged, giving some workers' children access to formal education, a privilege previously reserved for the upper classes.[11] Education helps workers become more aware of their situation and injustices, so in a way, getting more education also sparked the advancement of workers’ rights. Additionally, the rise of leisure time allowed for the development of mass cultural activities. A notable example is the founding of the Football League in 1888, which reflected and responded to the growing availability of free time among the working class.[12] Steam-driven printing presses transformed the speed and scale at which ideas could travel. The adoption of the steam-powered printing press, drastically reduced the cost of printed materials, making newspapers and books accessible to a wider public.[13] Cheap publications such as Thomas Paine’s Rights of Man reached working-class readers who had previously been excluded from political and philosophical discourse.

Crucially, the brand-new atmosphere of mechanized production provided opportunities for women to work. As women entered the industrial workforce in unprecedented numbers, industrialization also transformed gender roles and opened new avenues for women’s personal freedom.[14] Though their wages were only about 1/3 of their male counterparts, many women earned independent income for the first time, granting them a degree of financial autonomy previously unimagined. This newfound economic agency created a significant expansion of personal freedom, allowing women to make choices about their lives beyond the domestic sphere.[15]

Productivity does not have the power to guarantee freedom, but without a rise in productivity, widespread access to freedom would be unattainable. James Watt did not create freedom, but the steam engine made it possible for most people to have access to it by reducing the time and effort required for labor. Without a leap in productivity, most people would still be trapped in the struggle for survival, and so-called "freedom" would remain a privilege reserved for few. Watt’s innovations made possible the liberation of body, broke the limitations of space, and promoted individual’s agency toward freedom. He built the foundation on which the concept of freedom could be transformed into reality. Hence while philosophers and politicians gave us the language and laws of freedom, it was James Watt who gave us the means to live it.

1.Berlin, Isaiah. "Two Concepts of Liberty." Reading Political Philosophy. Routledge, 2014. 231-237.

2.Marx, Karl, and Friedrich Engels. "The german ideology." Social Theory Re-Wired. Routledge, 2023. 123-127.

3.Clark, Gregory. "A farewell to alms: a brief economic history of the world." A Farewell to Alms. Princeton University Press, 2008.

4.Moseley, Alexander. "John Locke." (2014): 1-248.

5.Rosen, William. The most powerful idea in the world: A story of steam, industry, and invention. University of Chicago Press, 2012.

6.Esteban, Javier Cuenca. "British textile prices, 1770-1831: are British growth rates worth revising once again?." Economic History Review (1994): 66-105.

7.Thompson, Edward Palmer. The making of the English working class. Open Road Media, 2016,pp. 122.

8.Divall, Colin. "Mobilities and transport history." The Routledge handbook of mobilities. Routledge, 2014. 36-44.

9.The Census of Great Britain, 1831

10.Webb, Sidney, and Beatrice Webb. The history of trade unionism. Longmans, Green, 1920, pp. 50–55.

11.Roberts, Stephen, ed. A Ministry of Enthusiasm: Centenary Essays on the Workers' Educational Assoc. Pluto Press, 2003.

12.the official website of the English Football League (EFL)

https://www.efl.com/about-the-efl/history

13.McKendrick, Neil, John Brewer, and John Harold Plumb. "The birth of a consumer society: the commercialization of eighteenth-century England." (No Title) (1982).

14.Engels, Friedrich. "The condition of the working class in England." American Journal of Public Health 93.8 (2003): 1246-1249.

15.De Beauvoir, Simone. "The second sex." Social theory re-wired. Routledge, 2023. 346-354.